Grade 10 History: Decline of Ancient Cities and Rise of Southwest Kingdoms
This unit delves into the "real history" of Sri Lanka, focusing on the decline of the ancient cities in the dry zone (the first era of urbanization) and the subsequent rise of new kingdoms in the southwest (the second era of urbanization). It explores the political, economic, religious, and cultural transformations during these periods.
Key Concepts & Definitions
- Timeline: A visual representation used to show the sequence of events over time, often depicted as a line with marked points for specific periods or occurrences.
- First Era of Urbanization: Refers to the period dominated by large, well-planned, geometrically structured cities like Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, primarily located in the dry zone. Characterized by self-sufficient, agriculture-based economies.
- Second Era of Urbanization: Refers to the period of smaller, often independent, and less stable ruling centers that emerged in the wet zone/southwest after the decline of Polonnaruwa. Characterized by a shift towards a commercial economy.
- Geometric Structure (of cities): Describes ancient cities like Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, which were large, well-planned, and designed for expansion with organized road systems and infrastructure.
- Independent Structure (of cities/kingdoms): Describes the smaller, often temporary or strategically located ruling centers of the second era, which were less grand and more focused on defense or specific regional control.
- Military Coup: An illegal and often violent seizure of power from a government, typically by a military faction.
- Matriarchal System (of inheritance): A system where kingship is inherited through the female line, specifically where the king's sister's son becomes the next king.
- Sandesha Kavya: A genre of Sinhala poetry where a message (sandesha) is sent through a messenger (often a bird or animal) from a hero to a heroine, describing the journey and various places.
- Tri-lingual Inscription (Tribhasha Sel Lipiya): An inscription written in three languages, notably the one left by Chinese Admiral Zheng He in Sri Lanka.
- Commercial Economy: An economic system focused on trade, profit, and the exchange of goods and services using money, rather than solely on self-sufficiency.
- Terrace Cultivation: An agricultural method where sloped land is cut into a series of flat surfaces or steps, resembling terraces, to create level areas for farming, especially in hilly regions.
- Upasampada Ritual: A Buddhist religious ceremony for promoting junior monks to senior monks.
- Pirivena: A monastic college or university for Buddhist monks, serving as a center for religious and secular education.
The First Era of Urbanization: Anuradhapura & Polonnaruwa
- Anuradhapura Kingdom:
- Founder: King Pandukabhaya (considered the first king of Sri Lanka).
- Duration: Longest existing kingdom (approx. 1,400 years), known as the "golden period."
- Key Kings:
- King Dutugamunu: United the country, pioneer in centralizing political power.
- King Devanampiyatissa: Buddhism introduced to Sri Lanka.
- King Wasabha, King Manavamma, King Sena.
- Downfall: Chola invasion in 1017 AD by Raja Raja I and Rajendra I, leading to destruction and plunder.
- Polonnaruwa Kingdom:
- Founder: King Vijayabahu I (after defeating the Cholas).
- Duration: Approx. two centuries (1070 AD - 1215 AD).
- Key Kings: King Parakramabahu I (great leader).
Downfall of Polonnaruwa Kingdom (1215 AD)
The decline of Polonnaruwa was a complex process, marked by internal weaknesses and external aggression.
- Power Struggle between Kalinga and Pandian Clans:
- King Vijayabahu I's matrimonial alliances (marrying a Kalinga princess and giving his sister to a Pandian prince) initially strengthened political power.
- After his death, these alliances led to internal power struggles as both Kalinga and Pandian clans sought to place their own people on the throne.
- This internal conflict weakened the kingdom significantly.
- Weak Rulers:
- The power struggle resulted in a succession of weak rulers who lacked full public support and could not stabilize political power.
- In the 29 years between the death of King Parakramabahu I (1186 AD) and the downfall of Polonnaruwa (1215 AD), 12 rulers came to power.
- Only King Nissanka Malla ruled for a significant period (9 years); others ruled for very short durations (days, months, or a few years), indicating political instability.
- Economic Deterioration:
- The internal conflicts and weak leadership led to neglect of the economy.
- Agriculture, irrigation systems (tanks, anicuts), and international trade suffered.
- This resulted in food shortages and a general economic collapse, making the country vulnerable.
- Invasion of Kalinga Maga (1215 AD):
- Kalinga Maga, a tyrant from the Kalinga state, exploited Polonnaruwa's weakened state.
- He invaded Sri Lanka, landing in Jaffna, and quickly marched to Polonnaruwa with a large army.
- The unprepared and weak Polonnaruwa kingdom fell, marking the "closest reason" or immediate cause of its downfall.
- This invasion led to mass migration of people and leaders to safer areas, particularly the southwest.
- Three leaders – Subha, Sankha, and Duke Bonabahu – established fortresses in Yapahuwa, Minipe (near Mahiyangana), and Govindamala to protect their respective areas.
The Second Era of Urbanization: Rise of Southwest Kingdoms
Following the downfall of Polonnaruwa, a new era of urbanization began in the wet zone/southwestern part of the country. These kingdoms were generally smaller, less stable, and often temporary compared to their predecessors.
- Dambadeniya Kingdom (c. 1232 AD):
- Founder: King Vijayabahu III (emerged during a period of chaos, believed to have Wanni connections).
- Key Achievements:
- Established Dambadeniya as the capital.
- Retrieved the Sacred Tooth Relic (Dalada) from Kotmale and enshrined it in a newly built Dalada Maligawa in Beligala.
- Re-established the Upasampada ritual and renovated temples (e.g., Kelaniya Temple), uplifting Buddhism.
- Key King: King Parakramabahu II (son of Vijayabahu III).
- Highly educated, known as "Kālikāla Sāhitya Sarvagna" for his vast knowledge in Sinhala literature.
- Believed to have authored the literary work Kausilumina.
- Skilled warrior: Defeated two invasions by Chandrabhānu (a Jāvaka/Malay king seeking the Sacred Tooth Relic) and liberated Polonnaruwa from Kalinga Maga's rule (c. 1255 AD). He did not relocate to Polonnaruwa for security reasons.
- Yapahuwa Kingdom:
- Context: King Vijayabahu IV (son of Parakramabahu II) was killed in a military coup. His brother, Bonabahu I, defeated the coup.
- Founder: King Bonabahu I (moved the capital to Yapahuwa for security, a rock fortress).
- Key Achievements:
- Initiated official trade relations with Arab countries, sending a mission to the Sultan of Cairo in Egypt. This marked a significant step in Sri Lanka's international diplomacy and trade, offering wood for weapons in exchange for open trade.
- Downfall: Invaded by Arya Chakravarthi (a general from the Pandian kingdom), who took the Sacred Tooth Relic to India.
- Kurunegala Kingdom:
- Context: Prince Parakramabahu III (son of Vijayabahu IV) went to India, negotiated with King Kulasekhara, and brought the Sacred Tooth Relic back, establishing a temporary kingdom in Polonnaruwa. Bonabahu II (son of Bonabahu I) then defeated Parakramabahu III, took the relic, and established Kurunegala as the new capital.
- Founder: King Bonabahu II.
- Key King: King Parakramabahu IV (also known as Pandita Parakramabahu, highly knowledgeable in Sinhala literature).
- Key Achievements:
- Translation of the Pansiya Panas Jātaka storybook from Pali to Sinhala, making Buddhist teachings accessible to a wider audience.
- Other Buddhist religious texts like Sinhala Daladā Sirita and Sinhala Bodhivansaya were also written.
- Gampola Kingdom:
- Founder: King Bonabahu IV.
- Parallel Kingdoms: During Gampola's existence, two other kingdoms operated:
- Jaffna Kingdom (in the north, ruled by the Arya Chakravarthi dynasty).
- Rayigama Kingdom (to the south, ruled by the Alakeshwara/Alagakonara dynasty, often supportive of Gampola).
- Unique Feature: Shifted to a matriarchal system of inheritance, where the king's sister's son could become the next king.
- Key Events:
- Writing of Sandesha Kavyas began (e.g., Mayura Sandeshaya, Tisara Sandeshaya).
- Ibn Battuta's visit (1344 AD): The Arab traveler documented Sri Lanka's rich international trade, noting busy harbors on the western coast.
- Chinese Invasion by Admiral Zheng He (Chen Ho): A Chinese admiral under the Ming dynasty, Zheng He, invaded Rayigama (under Gampola's influence) after a diplomatic mission was poorly received by Vira Alakeshwara. Zheng He left a tri-lingual inscription in Dondra and later returned with a large army, defeating Vira Alakeshwara and taking him prisoner to China.
- Kotte Kingdom:
- Founder: King Parakramabahu VI.
- Key Achievements:
- United the entire country under one flag for the last time in history. He achieved this by defeating the Jaffna Kingdom (with the help of his adopted son, Prince Sapumal Kumaru) and bringing the Wanni chieftains under control.
- Golden Age of Sinhala Literature: Kotte period is considered the golden age, producing great authors like Thotagamuwe Rahula. King Parakramabahu VI uplifted literature and religion, notably by building the Sunethra Devi Pirivena in Pepiliyana.
- Jotiya's Rebellion: King Parakramabahu VI crushed a rebellion by Jotiya, a provincial ruler in the upcountry, but famously forgave the rebels (recorded in the Diggama inscription).
- Jaffna Kingdom:
- Founder: Vijaya Kulankai Chakravarthi (ruled by the Arya Chakravarthi dynasty).
- Key Literary Source: Yalpana Vaipava Malai provides significant information.
- Wanni Region: A buffer zone between Jaffna and the southern kingdoms, ruled by Wanni chieftains, who were regional rulers with some independence but often under the influence of larger kingdoms.
Economic Style of Southwest Kingdoms
- Shift to Commercial Economy: While agriculture remained the main livelihood, surplus crops were sold for profit, marking a move from self-sufficiency to a money-oriented commercial economy.
- Spice Cultivation and Export: Large-scale cultivation and export of spices like cinnamon, cardamom, nutmeg, pepper, and arecanut became prominent.
- Agriculture in the Wet Zone:
- Kingdoms moved to the wet zone, which received ample rainfall, reducing the need for large-scale irrigation systems (tanks, anicuts) common in the dry zone.
- Terrace cultivation was adopted in hilly areas for paddy.
- Diverse International Trade:
- India remained a key trade partner.
- Arab traders directly visited Sri Lanka for spices.
- Strong relations with China (importing glassware, porcelain, silk; exporting spices).
- Trade with Persia (modern-day Iran) and Egypt (as initiated by Bonabahu I).
Religion in Southwest Kingdoms
- Buddhism: Remained the main religion, with efforts to uplift it (e.g., Vijayabahu III's actions).
- Regional God Worship: Alongside Buddhist teachings, the worship of regional gods (e.g., Saman, Vibhishana, Skanda, Kataragama) became prevalent, with Devalas (temples for gods) often built alongside Buddhist temples.
- Hinduism:
- Hinduism was also significant, with a Shiva Deval in Sri Jayawardenapura.
- Munneswaram Kovil (in Chilaw) became a prominent Hindu temple during this era, complementing older temples like Koneswaram and Thiruketheeswaram.
- Islam: Muslim communities grew, and mosques were built in their settlements (e.g., in Beruwala).
Arts and Architecture in Southwest Kingdoms
- Foreign Influence in Architecture:
- Yapahuwa fortress shows Pandian and Cambodian architectural influences (e.g., the lion figures).
- Some structures in Polonnaruwa (e.g., Sat Mahal Prasad, Gal Vihara) also exhibit Southeast Asian architectural styles.
- Connection of Devalas to Pilimage: The practice of connecting Devalas (gods' temples) to Pilimage (image houses for Buddha statues) within Buddhist temple complexes became common, reflecting the integration of regional god worship.
- Wood Carvings: Ambekke Devalaya (Gampola period) is renowned for its exquisite and finely detailed wood carvings.
- Literature:
- Revival of Sinhala Literature: The second era saw a significant revival.
- Kausilumina (authored by Parakramabahu II) marked a high point.
- Pansiya Panas Jātaka storybook was translated from Pali to Sinhala during the Kurunegala period.
- Writing of Sandesha Kavyas began during the Gampola period (Mayura Sandeshaya, Tisara Sandeshaya).
- The Kotte Kingdom is considered the Golden Age of Sinhala Literature, producing great scholars and poets like Thotagamuwe Rahula, fostered by institutions like Sunethra Devi Pirivena.
Questions for Reflection or Further Study
- Compare and contrast the characteristics of cities and economies in the first and second eras of urbanization in Sri Lanka.
- Analyze the long-term consequences of internal power struggles on the stability and economy of a kingdom, using the downfall of Polonnaruwa as an example.
- Discuss how the strategic location of Sri Lanka influenced its trade relations and cultural exchanges with other countries during the second era of urbanization.
- Evaluate the contributions of King Parakramabahu VI to the political unity and literary development of Sri Lanka.
- How did religious practices evolve or adapt during the second era of urbanization, particularly concerning the worship of regional gods and the influence of other religions?